The present disclosure generally relates to compositions comprising a naturally-occurring compound found in some spices. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to compositions comprising p-anisaldehyde and further relates to methods comprising administering such compositions.
Dysphagia is a condition typified by a decreased ability to swallow. The normal swallow involves three distinct phases which are interdependent and well coordinated: the oral, the pharyngeal, and the esophageal phases. In the oral phase, which is under voluntary control, food that has been chewed and mixed with saliva is formed into a bolus for delivery by voluntary tongue movements to the back of the mouth, into the pharynx. The pharyngeal phase is involuntary and is triggered by the food/liquid bolus passing through the faucial pillars into the pharynx. Contraction of the three constrictors of the pharynx propels the bolus towards the upper oesophageal sphincter. Simultaneously, the soft palate closes the nasopharynx. The larynx moves upwards to prevent food or liquid passing into the airway, which is aided by the backward tilt of the epiglottis and closure of the vocal folds. The oesophageal phase is also involuntary and starts with the relaxation of the upper oesophageal sphincter followed by peristalsis, which pushes the bolus down to the stomach.
Esophageal dysphagia affects a large number of individuals of all ages, but is generally treatable with medications and is considered a less serious form of dysphagia. Oral pharyngeal dysphagia, on the other hand, is a very serious condition and is generally not treatable with medication. Oral pharyngeal dysphagia also affects individuals of all ages, but is more prevalent in older individuals. Worldwide, oral pharyngeal dysphagia affects approximately 22 million people over the age of 50.
The consequences of untreated or poorly managed oral pharyngeal dysphagia can be severe, including dehydration, malnutrition, airway obstruction with solid foods (choking), and airway aspiration of liquids and semi-solid foods, promoting aspiration pneumonia and/or pneumonitis. Severe oral pharyngeal dysphagia may require nutrition to be supplied by tube feeding. Mild to moderate oral pharyngeal dysphagia requires the texture of foods to be modified in order to minimize the likelihood of choking or aspiration.
Improving an individual's ability and efficiency to swallow improves the individual's safety through reduced risk of pulmonary aspiration. An efficient swallow may permit greater independence from feeding assistance and/or reduced length of time spent in feeding-assistance during meal consumption. Efficient swallow also reduces the viscosity of liquids required for safety (e.g., pudding, honey and nectar thickness products) and may also limit the use of texture-modified foods. All of these previously described factors are aimed at improving an individual's quality of life.
Research on the molecular mechanisms underlying pungent sensations revealed the existence of two cation channels, TRPV1 (transient receptor potential V1) and TRPA1 (transient receptor potential A1) that are expressed in the somatosensory fibers innervating the oral cavity. TRPV1 is the receptor for heat and burning sensations such as capsaicin, the hot molecule in red hot chili peppers. TRPA1 responds to cold and pungent compounds such as allyl isothiocyanate (mustard oil) and cinnamaldehyde (cinnamon). At moderated concentrations, TRPA1 agonists exhibit a pleasant tingling sensation.
Although oral administration of capsaicin has been shown to promote a swallow reflex, capsaicin is a particularly pungent and toxic compound. Physiological effects associated with oral administration of capsaicin include a burning sensation of heat from the mid-tongue to the throat, shortness of breath, fainting, nausea, and spontaneous vomiting. Mustard oil is similarly pungent, and cinnamaldehyde is tingling. As a result, only small quantities of capsaicin, mustard oil or cinnamaldehyde may be administered without causing discomfort to the individual. Food products containing capsaicin, mustard oil or cinnamaldehyde are frequently not accepted by the consumer as providing a very unpleasant mouth feeling. In particular, both the tingling and burning effect are considered to be very unsavory affecting the consumption of the food product.
Another condition adversely affecting some individuals is that their body tissues do not respond properly to insulin. Insulin receptors in the tissues cease to function adequately and gluco-dependant cells fail to recognize the presence of insulin. As a result, the pancreas needs to secrete more insulin to help glucose enter these cells. The pancreas tries to keep up with this increased demand for insulin by producing more. This phenomenon is called insulin resistance (also known as low insulin sensitivity). Many people with insulin resistance have high levels of both glucose and insulin circulating in their blood at the same time. Eventually, the pancreas fails to keep up with the body's need for insulin, leading to Type II diabetes.
Insulin resistance and Type II diabetes are associated to increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, amputation, diabetic retinopathy, and kidney failure. For extreme cases, circulation of limbs is affected, potentially requiring amputation. Loss of hearing, eyesight, and cognitive ability has also been linked to these conditions
Management of insulin resistance in children and adults is essentially based on dietary and lifestyle changes, including healthier dietary habits and increased exercise. These practices can be very efficient in improving insulin sensitivity and in slowing the progression of the disease, but they are difficult to apply and actually not followed by most patients. Type II diabetes can be treated with drugs promoting insulin sensitivity, but their efficacy in reducing the rate of progression of the disease is quite low. Insulin treatment is required during the most advanced phases of the disease.
Products containing n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, fibers, oligosaccharides and even probiotics have been proposed as nutritional solutions to improve insulin sensitivity and to reduce insulin resistance. However, the efficacy of these nutritional interventions is quite marginal and even controversial, with studies showing no or even deleterious effects.
Yet another condition adversely affecting some individuals is obesity. The prevalence of obesity has increased worldwide to epidemic proportion. Approximately 1 billion of people worldwide are overweight or obese, conditions that increase mortality, mobility and economical costs. Obesity develops when energy intake is greater than energy expenditure, the excess energy stored mainly as fat in adipose tissue. Body weight loss and prevention of weight gain can be achieved by reducing energy intake or bioavailability, increasing energy expenditure and/or reducing storage as fat. However, overweight subjects or subjects at risk of becoming overweight often need nutritional assistance for better managing their body weight, e.g. through increasing satiety and/or reducing body weight gain.
Yet another condition adversely affecting some individuals is impaired neurotransmission, for example low levels of neurotransmitters such as epinephrine. Impaired neurotransmission is connected to mood disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders, and increased susceptibility to stress, and also connected to cognitive dysfunction.
Carbohydrate-rich foods are known for providing important metabolic fuel for physical performance, but their effects on mood and cognitive performance are not very clear. However, irritability and aggression are influenced by individual differences in insulin release, the frequency that meals are eaten, and the effect of these meals on blood glucose values. Benton, “Carbohydrate ingestion, blood glucose and mood,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 26:293-308 (2002). Furthermore, the ability to control the levels of blood glucose is related to both mood and cognition. For example, in a study in which participants were given an oral glucose tolerance test and cognitive tests, the older age group showed that those with poorer glucose tolerance forgot more words and had slower decision times; and, in those participants with poor glucose tolerance, a tendency for blood glucose to fall below baseline values was associated with better mood and faster working memory. Young and Benton, “The nature of the control of blood glucose in those with poorer glucose tolerance influences mood and cognition,” Metab. Brain Dis. (Mar. 26, 2014).